Theoretical Framework

Considering that language brokering thrives in a social context and in bilingualism, the theory I will follow on this website is the educational sociology of language as developed by Joshua Fishman in 1972. In fact, this theory was used to study and analyze the relationship between languages and society, especially the effects of languages on a society. Of course, there are many effects in a language. According to Baker (2006), learning a language implies learning of its culture. When it comes to the case of many children who translate from one language to another for their parents Baker (2006), Buriel, Perez, De Ment, Chavez, & Moran (1998), and De Jong (2011) state that those children not only translate, explaining sentences or words, but also they interpret and explain mainstream culture and society to their parents. In other words, they are cultural ambassadors to their family members. As applied to this website, using the educational sociology of language theory, I will be able to demonstrate how parents receive mainstream American cultural inputs through the great labor of their bilingual children brokers.

References

Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (4^th. Ed.).Buffalo; Multilingual Matters.

Buriel, R., Perez, W., De Ment, T., Chavez, D. V. & Moran, V. (1998). The relationship of language brokering to academic performance, biculturalism, and self-efficacy among Latino adolescents. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 20 (3), 283-297. doi:10.1177/07399863980203001

De Jong, E. J. (2011). Foundations for Multilingualism in Education: From Principles to Practice. Caslon Publishing.

Fishman, J. A. (1972). The Sociology of Language. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Orellana, M. F. (2009). Translating childhoods immigrant youth, language, and culture. New Brunswick, N. J.:     Rutgers University Press.

Module 1: Language Brokering: Issues

Introduction: Module 1 consists of defining ‘language brokering’ and giving a brief research panorama based on literature review or previous research on children brokers.

Objective: The objective of this module is to introduce the educator into the “language brokering” practices through some studies that have been conducted, studies which focused specifically on the children brokers. 

Literature review: Many children translate for their parents or relatives in a broad range of situations (Baker, 2006). There are many framing translations that were proved in clinical psychology in regards to children brokers: ‘parentified child’, ‘adultification’, ‘parentification’ of children, role reversal, weakness of parental authority, etc. (Love & Buriel, 2007; Orellana, 2009). Other studies examined the relationship between brokering practices and children’s academic performance, academic self-efficacy, biculturalism, social self-efficacy, biculturalism, mental health and risky behavior. The findings show a possible acceleration of academic and socio-emotional development on one hand (Buriel, Perez, De Ment, Chavez, & Moran, 1998), and a reduction of acculturation stress in family with alcoholic behavior (Kam, 2011). Even though language brokering has been negatively portrayed because of excessive responsibilities on young people, monolingual speakers’ point of view is positive to brokering. For bilingual speakers with brokering experience, it’s a normal and appreciable activity (Cline, Crafter, O’Dell, & Guida de Abreu, 2011) that they do only to help the family (Orellana, 2009).

In contrast, in a study conducted by Martinez Jr., Heather, & Eddy (2009), a higher demand of language brokering reveals higher levels of family stress and poor academic achievement for brokers. In another survey study, when language brokering is practiced in a dysfunctional family, children feel angry, scared, ashamed, embarrassed, nervous, uncomfortable, and obligated (Weisskirch, 2007). 

Module 1: Activities

The following activities help better understand some of the studies that have been made about language brokering.

01.  Recording Voices: Stories of Asian Pacific American Youth as Language Brokers in New York City. This is a presentation of a research project on Asian youth brokers. Kids are asked to tell their stories about their experience as interpreters. The goal of this project was to analyze the impact of these practices in terms of family dynamics and of improving language access for the Asian American communities and other linguistically diverse communities.

-       02. Translating Childhoods: book presentation by Dr. Marjorie Faulstich Orellana. This activity helps understand language brokering in several aspects: psychological, sociological, educational, and demographically. 
      

 
03. Dr. Marjorie Faulstich Orellana’s conference on language brokering in Fairhaven College of Interdisciplinary Studies at Western Washington University (See link "Dr. Orellana at WWU)

Module 1: Conclusion

In brief, with language brokering practices, children become advocates; they negotiate between two worlds (Orellana, 2009), they serve as bridges that connect two points. In other words, they are cultural brokers (Buriel, Perez, De Ment, Chavez, & Moran, 1998), so that their parents may effectively function in the new culture (Weisskirch & Alva, 2002). However, this multifunctionality of children brokers doesn’t necessarily infer with their parents’ acculturation processes.

Module 1: References

Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (4^th. Ed.).Buffalo; Multilingual Matters.

Buriel, R., Perez, W., De Ment, T., Chavez, D. V. & Moran, V. (1998). The relationship of language brokering to academic performance, biculturalism, and self-efficacy among Latino adolescents. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 20 (3), 283-297. doi:10.1177/07399863980203001

Cline, T., Crafter, S., O’Dell & Guida de Abreu (2011). Young people’s representations of language brokering. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 32(3), 207 – 220. doi:10.1080/01434632.2011.558901

Kam, J. A. (2011).  The effects of language brokering frequency and feelings on Mexican-heritage youth’s mental health and risky behaviors. Journal of Communication 61, 455 – 475. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01552.x

Love, J. & Buriel, R. (2007). Language brokering, autonomy, parent-child bonding, biculturalism, and depression: A study of Mexican American adolescents from immigrant families. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 29 (4),472-491. doi:10.1177/0739986307229

Martinez Jr, C. R., Heather, H. M & Eddy, J. M. (2009). Language brokering contexts and behavioral and emotional adjustment among Latino parents and adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence 29 (1), 71-98. doi:10.1177/0272431608324477

Orellana, M. F. (2009). Translating childhoods immigrant youth, language, and culture. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press.

Weisskirch, R. S. (2007). Feelings about language brokering and family relations among Mexican American early adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence 27 (4),545-561. doi:10.1177/0272431607302935

Weisskirch, R. S., & Alva, S. A. (2002). Language brokering and the acculturation of Latino children. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 24, 369-378. doi:10.1177/0739986302024003007

Module 2: Acculturation Processes: How and when?

Introduction: Module 2 consists of explaining acculturation processes and how (and when) it takes place.

Objective:  The objective of this module is to determine the acculturation expected to find in parents with brokering experience.

International business, international investment, or just looking for a better life are several reasons that make people migrate to other countries. These good reasons to migrate may come at a cost and fail without a good understanding of differences between cultures (Routamaa & Hautala, 2008).

Acculturation is one of the important factors that affect immigrants in the U.S. In their studies, John, Phipps, Davis, & Koo (2005) affirm that the traditional concept of acculturation implies the replacement of the original culture by a new one. This is the meaning of the American ‘melting-pot’. This conceptualization was replaced by models of biculturalism (Caetano, Ramisetty-Mikler, Wallisch, McGrath, & Spence, 2008). However Gallo, Penedo, Espinosa de los Monteros and Arguelles (2009) state that acculturation is best described as a normal process between both cultures. This process requires a timeline in various places through the whole migration process.

Acculturation can be defined as “the process of cultural and psychological change that follows when a group of individuals having different cultures comes in contact with a new culture” (Mahmud & Schölmerich, 2011, p. 278). There are three strategies for this adjustment process: foreigners can psychologically adjust their behaviors to the environment, they may change the environment, or they may move to a better environment (Berry, Kim, & Boski, 1988)

Module 2: Activities

To reach this objective, I have planned these activities:

-    Cross-cultural Teaching – Assimilation and Acculturation. These activities will help better understand some cross-cultural terms such as ‘acculturation’, ‘assimilation’ (melting pot) as practiced in the U.S., ‘amalgamation’ (accommodation) as the melting pot idea developed by Newman (1973). Also, these activities will better explain how individuals adjust to a new culture (Berry, Kim, & Boski, 1988).

Berry, Kim, and Boski (1988)

 

Module 2: Conclusion

The melting pot (assimilation= culture A + culture B + culture C = culture A) as practiced in the United States and the amalgamation (cultures A+B+C = D) are out of date. Rather, the outcome expected here is cultural pluralism, where people maintain their original identity while still participating in the new mainstream culture. In brief, acculturation is seen here as an adaptation process where individuals integrate elements of a new culture to their own.

Module 2: References

Berry, J. W., Kim, U., & Boski, P. (1988). Psychological Acculturation of Immigrants. Cross-cultural Adaptation: Current Approaches. Ed. Kim Y. Y. & Gudykunst W. B.. Sage Publications, Inc.: California.

Caetano, R., Ramisetty-Mikler, S., Wallisch, L. S., McGrath, C., & Spence, R.T. (2008).Acculturation, drinking, and alcohol abuse and dependence among Hispanics in theTexas-Mexico border. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 32, 314 – 321. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00576.x

John, E. M., Phipps, A. I., Davis, A., & Koo, J. (2005). Migration history, acculturation, and breast cancer risk in Hispanic women. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 14, 2905 – 2913. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0483

Mahmud, S. H., & Schölmerich, A. (2011). Acculturation and Life Satisfaction: Immigrants in Germany. Psychology Research, 1(4), 278-286.

Newman, W. M. (1973). American Pluralism. New York: Harper and Row.

Routamaa, V. & Hautala, T. M. (2008). Understanding cultural differences. The values in a cross-cultural context. International Review of Business Research Papers 4 (5), 129-137. 

Module 3: Children Brokers: Parents' Opinions

Introduction: Module 3 consists of the parents’ point of view about having their children brokering.Objective: The objective of this module is for the educator or the reader to be able to determine if there is an acculturation process for parents while having their children translating and interpreting for them.I would like to collect the opinions of children brokers’ parents on brokering practices. They must answer questions related to language brokering and their own acculturation processes in the mainstream American culture.

Module 3: Activities

To reach this objective, I have planned these activities:*** Questionnaire: Each reader is challenged to interview at least 2 adults who use  children brokers and draw up his/her conclusion of whether there has been acculturation process or not. Then, they may post their findings on this site or they may only copy these links and take the survey. At the end they have to submit their answers.English version: https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?fromEmail=true&formkey=dEs3YlpNZ1EwUV9mQkNmc0NaendSdUE6MQVersión Española:https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?fromEmail=true&formkey=dEQ0dWszWkV5MF90VmxhNHhsVWQ1dUE6MQLike us on Facebook and share your own experience: http://www.facebook.com/LanguageBrokering 

Module 3: Conclusion

Parents or readers are invited to answer the online questionnaire, then to submit it. This is just an exercise to help the investigator determine if language brokering practices effectively affect acculturation processes. Actually, this is an ongoing research project that is taking place in South Texas. For the purpose of this course, this analysis is shortened here. However, I will add more modules to this research project in the future.

© Copyright: Julien Ekiaka-Oblazamengo